Pavlov's Dogs, Technology's Humans

Pavlov’s experiment is widely known as a revolutionary discovery in the psychological community. It resulted in the development of the idea known as classical conditioning. Pavlov’s experiment illustrates this concept by using dogs as its subject, showing an initially neutral stimulus that does not result in a response, and how it evolves to become a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response. This article will investigate this type of conditioned response in humans, specifically in how they react to a stimulus of phone notifications.

Pavlov’s Dogs

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian psychologist and physiologist who studied the reflexes and reactions of animals. He has developed the theory of classical conditioning using dogs as the experimental model. The development of this experiment began in 1903 when he read a paper regarding the “Psychology and Psychopathy of Animals” [1]. Based on his research and work, he generated the widely known experiment involving dogs. To understand the concepts illustrated in the experiments, it is essential to define certain terms. This includes neutral, unconditioned, and conditioned stimuli. A neutral stimulus is a type of stimulus that elicits no response while an unconditioned stimulus is a type of stimulus that results in an involuntary response. A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that, as a result of  training, can elicit a programmed behavior called a conditioned response [2]. 

These are all elements that were implemented in Pavlov’s experiment through different components. The experiment begins with initially presenting the dogs with food, an unconditioned stimulus, which they responded to by salivating. They also presented the dogs with a neutral stimulus, the bell, where no response was elicited. Pavlov then continued to pair the bell sound with the food by giving it to them after ringing the bell. The bell then became a conditioned stimulus which meant the dogs began to salivate after hearing the bell, whether they got food or not [3]. The experiment overall showed how through a process of conditioning, an initially neutral stimulus can result in a conditioned response. 

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is known as the process of learning during which a stimulus results in a programmed response [4]. Classical conditioning is controlled in the brain by various pathways, however, the cerebellum is the key part of the brain that is involved [5]. The CS, or conditioned stimulus, pathway begins with sensory relay nuclei projections and travels to the cerebellar cortex and nuclei. The sensory relay nucleus refers to the nuclei found in the thalamus where information from sensory receptors is sent before it is sent to specific sensory areas of the cerebral cortex [6].This pathway is responsible for recognizing the stimulus in an event of classical conditioning [7]. The US, or unconditioned stimulus, pathway involves activating the inferior olive, which in turn activates the climbing fiber projections to the cerebellum [8]. The US pathway is in charge of associating a response to a specific stimulus [9]. The final pathway, the CR, or conditioned response, pathway sends signals from the cerebellum to other parts of the brain in order to physically carry out the response to the stimulus [10].

Classical conditioning involves learning that affects human behavior [11]. One aspect that is often overlooked is the impact of human behavior on the connection between mental and physical health. The process has been used in many human and animal studies. One example of classical conditioning could be the exacerbated feelings of craving among patients with substance use disorder (SUD) when exposed to a stimulus that was previously associated with drug use. Clinicians found that certain triggers, such as watching drug use, will result in the urge to take drugs, as a conditioned response [12]. Other uses of classical conditioning include overcoming phobias through exposure and aversive therapy [13]. 

Thanks to the discovery of classical conditioning we are able to better understand the concept of the placebo effect. The placebo effect is a commonality found in a variety of psychological studies [14]. Placebo treatments are usually found to be used in research for developing new healthcare treatments [15]. A placebo is known as a treatment that does not have any active properties. It is usually used in an experiment to help understand the effects of a new treatment. Placebos can be found in many forms of treatments including sugar pills, saline injections, or even fake surgical procedures [16]. It has been proven that a person’s mental state can potentially contribute to the development or progression of certain diseases. While it is not impactful as other factors, mentality does play a role in its advancement. Being a part of the placebo group for a treatment can help recover from, however not fully cure, certain diseases [17]. Classical conditioning is often found in professional psychological settings, however it is interesting to see how it plays a role in our everyday lives.  

Phone Notifications

One real life example of classical conditioning is the association between a reward and phone notifications. Much like the bell used as a stimulus in Pavlov’s experiment, the notifications from phone applications serve the same purpose. Similar to the reaction food elicited from the dogs, the sound from a person’s phone can indicate that there is some sort of reward waiting for them [18]. This reward could be in reference to a positive text message, a like on a post, or maybe even a phone call. The reasoning behind this response and the response of the dogs in Pavlov’s experiment fall under the same category. 

Dopamine is most commonly referred to as the “feel-good” hormone which is released to motivate behaviors that increase fitness [19]. It is a chemical that is released when we eat good food, have sex, and have positive social interactions. There are a total of four dopamine pathways, however only three are considered the reward pathways that are used to reward certain behaviors and motivate people to repeat them [20]. 

The mesocortical, mesolimbic, and nigrostriatal pathways which are all responsible for some aspect of the brain’s reward system. The mesocortical pathway begins in a specific area in the brain called the ventral tegmental area, where dopamine is produced, and moves to the prefrontal cortex. This pathway is involved in cognition, memory, and decision making [21]. In the case of classical conditioning and learning, this pathway plays a role in the brain sending signals regarding what actions should be taken in response to a stimulus [22]. The mesolimbic pathway’s main responsibility is pleasure and reward, the primary function of dopamine. This pathway again begins in the ventral tegmental area and moves to the nucleus accumbens. This is primarily where the feeling of pleasure is created. The rewarding feeling from a stimulus in a case of classical conditioning is a result of this functioning pathway. Finally, the nigrostriatal pathway is involved in motor skills and problem solving. This pathway contains a majority of the dopamine that is found in the brain [23]. It also plays a part in the actual physical response in classical conditioning [24].

The fourth dopamine pathway is called the Tuberoinfundibular pathway. In this pathway, dopamine works to inhibit the release of prolactin [25]. Prolactin is a type of protein that is important for metabolism, sexual satisfaction, and the immune system [26]. While it is not directly related to classical conditioning, it is possible that it is responsible for countering certain effects of dopamine [27].

It has been studied that a response to a social stimulus such as a positive message or reaction activates these reward pathways and the release of dopamine [28]. The release of dopamine motivates people to check their notifications because of this social stimulus, and as a result people check their phones at every notification sound or buzz [29]. 

Potential Solutions

It has been proven that a phone or internet addiction can have negative physical effects on the brain. While the term is not recognized in the DSM-5 and there is controversy around whether it can or cannot be called an addiction, it is often used to describe a person that uses their cell phone, or the internet, more than the average amount for people their age. In a study done by Dr. Hyung Suk Seo, a group of internet “addicted” students are compared with healthy students after getting a magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) exam [30]. The results showed that the students with internet addiction had increased ratios of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in comparison with the excitatory neurotransmitters Glx (glutamate and glutamine) [31]. GABA is a neurotransmitter that slows down/inhibits brain signals while Glx is a neurotransmitter that causes neurons to become more excited [32]. Cognitive behavioral therapy can assist in normalizing GABA levels of an internet addicted individual [33]. Those that are addicted to the internet have heightened GABA levels however after going through cognitive behavioral therapy, these levels return almost back to normal [34]. 

The effects of classical conditioning in this instance have also created unhealthy habits in many individuals. It is a very common issue for people in this generation to have an “addiction” to their cellular devices and classical conditioning is why people’s brains allow this to occur. However, there are solutions that can help with this seemingly unsolvable problem. One simple solution is turning off any social media notifications, including Snapchat, Instagram, and Messages. Not being able to hear the stimulus in the first place will prevent classical conditioning from playing out its full course. This will also save people time that would have been spent scrolling through said notifications and allow them to use this time to be more productive [35].

If this seems to not have enough of an effect, people can take a step further by deleting the apps themselves or downloading helpful apps. These apps can control how long certain apps are open and can block any distractions completely [36]. In addition to helpful apps, there are some interventions suggested by the medical community including behavioral therapy. As seen in the study mentioned earlier, this type of therapy helps to reverse the physical effects, including increased GABA levels, of being internet addicted. Cell phone usage is not detrimental in moderation, but it can be difficult to have that sense of restraint. Using these tools, among others, can help to develop self-control and put it towards useful habits.  

References: 

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